Chloramine-T

Buds & Soma is one of the well known Chloramine-T Suppliers, providing finest Chloramine-T Solution which will surely disinfect all water problems. Today, a number of users have been using our Chloramine T Hydrate which has been used as an algicide, bactericide, and germicide for drinking water disinfection.

Chloramine is a disinfectant added to water for public health protection. It is a combination of chlorine and ammonia that is currently considered best technology for controlling the formation of certain regulated organic disinfection byproducts.

Chloramine was used as a disinfectant in the entire SFPUC distribution system in the Bay Area for ten years between 1935 and 1944 when the Hetch Hetchy water supply was first brought to the San Francisco Peninsula from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Many utilities used chloramination at that time, including 34 other drinking water supplies in California in the 1930s. Chloramination was discontinued in 1944 at SFPUC and many other utilities due to shortages of ammonia during World War II. SFPUC started using Chloramine as a distribution system disinfectant again in February 2004 to better comply with the new federal drinking water regulations, which require more stringent control of chlorination by-products. There is a significant amount of on-going research by many agencies worldwide regarding best disinfection practices for control of microorganisms in drinking water and simultaneous minimization of chemical disinfection by-products. SFPUC continually monitors that research and the latest information on water disinfection practices.

Since 2004, Chloramine has been very effective as a distribution system disinfectant in San Francisco’s distribution system. It has lowered microbial densities (including Coliform bacteria, heterotrophic bacteria, Legionella bacteria), at the same time minimizing the formation of regulated disinfection by-products. In 2007, the levels of regulated disinfection by-products were the lowest on record. San Francisco Department of Public Health and SFPUC support continuing the use of chloramination for disinfection in the distribution system. Due to favorable water quality results, in January 2007, SFPUC lowered the target level of Chloramine entering the distribution system from 2.3 to 2.1 mg/L Cl2. Future target adjustments (up or down) may occur when operational conditions require.

Chloraminated water is safe for people and animals to drink, and for all other general uses (consensus statement from the California Conference of Local Health Officers plus a medical opinion from Tufts University School of Medicine. However, as with chlorine, Chloramine will need to be removed for fish and amphibian use, and for people or businesses requiring highly treated water.
There has been some confusion amongst certain groups as to what form of chloramine is present in SFPUC water. A recognized chemistry expert outlines his opinion that, because of our corrosion control method, only monochloramine, the least reactive form of Chloramine, is formed in SFPUC drinking water. READ - Opinion as to Probable Chloramine Speciation in SF Public Utilities Drinking Water Distribution System.

Dr. June Weintraub of the San Francisco Department of Public Health prepared this memorandum. It discusses some of the rationale behind the conversion to Chloramine as a disinfectant for San Francisco's water as well as health effects of both chlorine and Chloramine. An abbreviated version of the memo appeared in the San Francisco Examiner.

Chloramine (monochloramine) is a chemical compound with the formula NH2Cl. It is usually used as a dilute solution where it is used as a disinfectant. The term chloramine also refers to a family of organic compounds with the formulas R2NCl and RNCl2 (R is an organic group). Dichloramine, NHCl2, and nitrogen trichloride, NCl3, are also well known.
Chloramine is a chemical compound with the formula NH2Cl. It is usually used as a dilute solution where it is used as a disinfectant. The term chloramine also refers to a family of organic compounds with the formulas R2NCl and RNCl2 (R is an organic group). Dichloramine, NHCl2, and nitrogen trichloride, NCl3, are also well known. chemical compound.


Synthesis and chemical reactions
Chloramine is a highly unstable compound in concentrated form, much less as a pure liquid. Pure NH2Cl decomposes violently above −40 °C.[1] NH2Cl is, however, quite stable in dilute solution, and this considerable stability is the basis of its applications.
NH2Cl is prepared by the chemical reaction between ammonia and hypochlorous acid[2] under mildly alkaline conditions:
NH3 + HOCl → NH2Cl + H2O
The synthesis is conducted in dilute solution. In this reaction HOCl undergoes attack by the nucleophile NH3. At lower pH's, further chlorination occurs.
The above syntheses are useful but do not deliver NH2Cl in pure form. The pure compound can be prepared by contacting fluoroamine with calcium chloride:
NH2F + CaCl2 → NH2Cl + CaClF
NH2Cl is a key intermediate in the traditional synthesis of hydrazine.
Monochloramine oxidizes sulfhydrals and disulfides in the same manner as HClO,[3] but only possesses 0.4% of the biocidal effect of HClO.[4]

Uses in water treatment
Chloramine is commonly used in low concentrations as a disinfectant in municipal water systems as an alternative to chlorination. This application is increasing. Chlorine (sometimes referred to as Free Chlorine) is being displaced by chloramine, which is much more stable and does not dissipate from the water before it reaches consumers. NH2Cl also exhibits less tendency to convert organic materials into chlorocarbons such as chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. Such compounds have been identified as carcinogens and in 1979 the U.S. EPA began regulating their levels in U.S. drinking water. Furthermore, water treated with chloramine lacks the distinct chlorine odour of the gaseous treatment and so has improved taste.
Chloramine in tap water gives a greenish cast to the water in bulk, versus the normally bluish cast to pure water or water containing only free chlorine disinfectant. This greenish color may be observed by filling a white polyethylene bucket with chloraminated tap water and comparing it to chloramine-free water such as distilled water or a sample from a swimming pool.

New swimming pool initially filled with chloramine-treated tap water, showing greenish color of chloramine in bulk water. The color is less apparent in smaller volumes, but is noticeable in a white 5-gallon bucket, or even faintly detectable in a glass tumbler on careful inspection.
Chloramine can be removed from tap water by treatment with superchlorination (10 ppm or more of free chlorine, such as from a dose of sodium hypochlorite bleach or pool sanitizer) while maintaining a pH of about 7 (such as from a dose of hydrochloric acid). Hypochlorous acid from the free chlorine strips the ammonia from the chloramine, and the ammonia outgasses from the surface of the bulk water. This process takes about 24 hours for normal tap water concentrations of a few ppm of chloramine. Residual free chlorine can then be removed by exposure to bright sunlight for about 4 hours.

Situations where Chloramine should be removed
Aquarium owners must remove the chloramine from their tap water because it is toxic to fish. Aging the water for a few days removes chlorine but not the more stable chloramine, which can be neutralised using products available at pet stores.
Many animals are sensitive to chloramine and it must be removed from water given to many animals in zoos.
Chloramine must also be removed from the water prior to use in kidney dialysis machines, as it would come in contact with the bloodstream across a permeable membrane. However, since chloramine is neutralized by the digestive process, kidney dialysis patients can still safely drink chloramine-treated water.
Home brewers use reducing agents such as sodium metabisulfite or potassium metabisulfite to remove chloramine from brewing liquor as it, unlike chlorine, cannot be removed by boiling (A.J. DeLange). Residual sodium can cause off flavors in beer (See Brewing, Michael Lewis) so potassium metabisulfite is preferred.
In swimming pools, chloramines are formed by the reaction of free chlorine with organic substances. Chloramines, compared to free chlorine, are both less effective as a sanitizer and more irritating to the eyes of swimmers. When swimmers complain of eye irritation from "too much chlorine" in a pool, the problem is typically a high level of chloramines, caused by too little chlorine in relation to the amount of organic matter. Pool test kits designed for use by homeowners are sensitive to both free chlorine and chloramines, which can be misleading.

Organic chloramines
A variety of organic chloramines are known and proven useful in organic synthesis. One example is N-chloromorpholine ClN(CH2CH2)2O, N-chloropiperidine, and N-chloroquinuclidinium chloride

• Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.


• Fair, G. M., J. C. Morris, S. L. Chang, I. Weil, and R. P. Burden. 1948. The behavior of chlorine as a water disinfectant. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 40:1051-1061.


• Jacangelo, J. G., V. P. Olivieri, and K. Kawata. 1987. Oxidation of sulfhydryl groups by monochloramine. Water Res. 21:1339-1344.


• Morris, J. C. 1966. Future of chlorination. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 58:1475-1482.


• Lindsay Smith, J. R.; McKeer, L. C.; Taylor, J. M. "4-Chlorination of Electron-Rich Benzenoid Compounds: 2,4-Dichloromethoxybenzene" Organic Syntheses, CollectedVolume 8, p.167


• Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.


• Fair, G. M., J. C. Morris, S. L. Chang, I. Weil, and R. P. Burden. 1948. The behavior of chlorine as a water disinfectant. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 40:1051-1061.


• Jacangelo, J. G., V. P. Olivieri, and K. Kawata. 1987. Oxidation of sulfhydryl groups by monochloramine. Water Res. 21:1339-1344.


• Morris, J. C. 1966. Future of chlorination. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 58:1475-1482.


• Lindsay Smith, J. R.; McKeer, L. C.; Taylor, J. M. "4-Chlorination of Electron-Rich Benzenoid Compounds: 2,4-Dichloromethoxybenzene" Organic Syntheses, CollectedVolume 8, p.167

What are the properties of chloramines?
Chloramines are formed during a reaction between chlorine (Cl2) and ammonia (NH3). Chloramines are amines which contain at least one chlorine atom, which is directly bond to nitrogen atoms (N). Inorganic chloramines are formed when dissolved chlorine and ammonia react. During this reaction three different inorganic chloramines are formed; monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2) en trichloramine (NCl3).
Inorganic chloramines, free chlorine and organic chloramines are chemically related and can change into one another easily. These compounds cannot be found in isolated form. Inorganic chloramines are not persistent; however, these compounds are more persistent than freely available chlorine compounds. Research has shown that the half-lives of inorganic chloramines can vary from one minute to 23 days, depending on the circumstances.

What are the applications of chloramines?
Chloramines can be used as bleach, disinfectants and oxidators. Organic disinfectants slowly give off chlorine, causing a slower and less aggressive disinfection than with hypochlorite (OCl-). Chloramines can be used to improve odor and flavor of the water when chlorine is used as a disinfectant. Chloramines are also used for the disinfection of drinking water and wastewater and to resist biofouling in cooling water systems.

Water disinfection with chloramines
When chloramines are used as a disinfectant, ammonia is added to chlorine treated water. Ammonia is added after chlorine, because this causes CT values to be lower than when ammonia is added primarily.
Chloramines are as effective as chlorine for the deactivation of bacteria and other microorganisms, however the reaction mechanism is slower. Chloramines, like chlorine, are oxidators. Chloramines can kill bacteria by penetration of the cell wall and blockage of the metabolism. Monochloramine is the most effective disinfectant. It reacts directly with amino acids in the bacterial DNA. During deactivation of microorganisms chloramines destroy the shell which protects a virus. When the pH value is 7 or higher, monochloramine is the most abundant Chloramine. The pH value does not interfere with the effectiveness of chloramines.
Is drinking water disinfected using chloramines?

United States
Chloramines are applied more and more often in the United States as an alternative for chlorine during secondary disinfection of drinking water. in the year 2002, 20% of the US drinking water production companies used chloramines. The main reason for the transfer from chlorine to chloramines is that chloramines react with organic matter less often than chlorine.
Little to no trihalomethanes (THM) and other disinfection byproducts are formed during chlormaine disinfection.
Chloramines will remain actively within the plumbing much longer. This is because it takes long for chloramines to be broken down.
Chloramines do not give off any taste or smell and are relatively safe.

Can chloramines be used for cooling tower water disinfection?
Chloramines are not very suitable for cooling tower water disinfection, because these compounds react very slowly with pathogenic microorganisms.

Can chloramines be removed from water?
Chloramines remain active in the water system for a considerably long period of time. Like other molecules, chloramines contribute to the total amount of dissolved solids in the water. Like chlorine, chloramines are selectively reactive and may have damaging affects when they remain in the water for too long.
When chloramines are present, there are usually trace amounts of ammonia and hypochlorite in the water as well. Chloramines are hardly ionic. As a result and because of the low molecular weight, chloramines, mainly monochloramine, are difficult to remove from water by reverse osmosis (RO) or water softening. Boiling and distillation cannot be used either. Substances for chlorine removal cannot be used for the removal of chloramines. Sunlight and aeration may aid chloramine removal.
Chloramines can be removed by means of a granular active carbon filter. This filter brings down chloramine concentrations from 1-2 ppm to less than 0,1 ppm. One must make sure that the active carbon comes in contact with chloramines for a significant amount of time. An active carbon filter is a selective, which means it also removes other compounds, such as chlorine (reduction to chloride), hydrogen sulphide, organic compounds, THM, pesticides and radon. When these compounds are present in water, this will influence the capacity of the filter.
The amount of chloramines in the water can be determined by measuring the 'total chlorine' residue. This means measuring the 'total amount of chlorine' or the 'amount of chlorine compounds'.

What benefits and drawbacks are there to using chloramines?

What are the benefits?

Few disinfection by products using chloramines benefits over using chlorine, because few organic compounds (trihalomethanes; THM) and other possibly carcinogenic byproducts (halogenic acetic acid; HAA) are formed.

Chloramines remain active for a long time
Chloramines remain in the water longer than chlorine. Monochloramines are most effective when the pH value is 7 or higher. When the pH value exceeds 7 the water is alkaline. The benefit of alkaline water is that it is less corrosive than acid water. When the pH value is high chlorine can be found in the water as hypochlorite ions (OCl-). These ions have a higher oxidation potential than underchloric acid. However, as a disinfectant it is a hundred times less effective than underchloric acid. When pH values are too high, its affectivity will diminish.

Chloramines increase taste and smell of water.
Chloramines do not alter the pH of the water. Chloramines provide a better taste and smell than chlorine. Chloramines are often applied to prevent a chlorine taste or smell.
Chloramine disinfection can be improved by raising temperatures.

What are the drawbacks?

Are organic chloramines formed?
When large amounts of organic matter are present in the water, organic nitrogen causes the formation of organic chloramines. These do not possess the same disinfection properties as inorganic chloramines. This situation occurs when organic matter contents exceed the 3 ppm boundary.

What is the reaction rate of chloramines?
The drawback of chloramines is that they are less reactive than chlorine. Part of the disinfectant remains in the water, where it will be consumed by bacteria or broken down. This process can take weeks. Contrary to chlorine, chloramines do not perish when the water lies still for a few days. As a result chloramines need to be removed from water. Chloramines can be removed by using granular active carbon or acetic acid.

Do chloramines form nitrates?
High amounts of ammonia serve as nutrients for nitrifying bacteria in the water, which can cause nitrate levels in the water to rise. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the stomach. Nitrites can react to N-nitrosamines with proteins in fish. These compounds may be carcinogenic. Young children are more susceptive to nitrites. When children are below 0,5 years old they cannot drink nitrate-rich water, because nitrites cause the oxygen level in the blood to fall (Blue Baby Syndrome). It is advised to feed baby’s with water that has a nitrate content of below 25 μg/L.

Can ammonia cause corrosion?
When chloramines are chemically removed, ammonia may be released. The toxic effect that ammonia has on fish can be prevented by the application of biological filters, natural zeolites and pH-control.
Ammonia causes corrosion of lead and copper. Nowadays most waterworks are made of lead or copper. In Washington DC (US), increased lead concentrations in drinking water caused by chloramine disinfection caused a fuss in 2003. However, drinking water companies do not plan to switch back to using chlorine, because this can no longer comply with the standard for disinfection byproducts, which was lowered to 80 μg/L by the EPA. Chloramines are used because of a lower concentration of disinfection byproducts. To prevent corrosion, orthophosphates are added.

What are the health effects of chloramines?
Water that is disinfected by chloramines does not cause a health threat. It can be used for drinking, bathing and washing and is suitable for several daily domestic purposes.

What are the dangers to kidney dialysis patients, fishes and amphibians?
Drinking chloramine-containing water or using it for boiling and bathing is safe, because of a neutralization of chloramines in the metabolism. However, people with weakened immune systems, such as young children, elderly people, people with HIV and people that undergo chemo therapy, should also be cautious when it comes to the use of chloramine disinfected water.
Kidney dialysis patients and people that own fish, reptiles or amphibians should be careful. With kidney dialysis patients the blood comes in contact with water in a semi permeable membrane. This can cause chloramines to directly enter the blood vessels. Chloramines are toxic to the blood.
Fishes can directly take up chloramines in the blood through their gills. Chloramines are toxic to fishes, too. Water that is used in aquaria should be free from chloramines.

What is the legislation for Chloramine disinfection?
EU
The European drinking water guideline does not contain standards for chloramines. When chloramines are used, few disinfection byproducts, such as trihalomethanes, are formed. However, other disinfection byproducts can form. Examples are toxic halonitrils (cyano chloride), halonitromethanes (chloropicrin) and other nitrogen-rich compounds. Some of these compounds can endanger human health. When the European Drinking Water Directive is revised, standards for these compounds will be added.
USA
According to American guidelines by EPA, drinking water that is treated with chloramines can contain a maximum amount of 4 mg/L Cl2. (National Primary Drinking Water Regulations EPA, 2002)

What are the benefits?
Few disinfection byproducts
Using chloramines benefits over using chlorine, because few organic compounds (trihalomethanes; THM) and other possibly carcinogenic byproducts (halogenic acetic acid; HAA) are formed.

Chloramines remain active for a long time
Chloramines remain in the water longer than chlorine. Monochloramines are most effective when the pH value is 7 or higher. When the pH value exceeds 7 the water is alkaline. The benefit of alkaline water is that it is less corrosive than acid water. When the pH value is high chlorine can be found in the water as hypochlorite ions (OCl-). These ions have a higher oxidation potential than underchloric acid. However, as a disinfectant it is a hundred times less effective than underchloric acid. When pH values are too high, its affectivity will diminish.

What are the drawbacks?

Are organic chloramines formed?
When large amounts of organic matter are present in the water, organic nitrogen causes the formation of organic chloramines. These do not possess the same disinfection properties as inorganic chloramines. This situation occurs when organic matter contents exceed the 3 ppm boundary.

What is the reaction rate of chloramines?
The drawback of chloramines is that they are less reactive than chlorine. Part of the disinfectant remains in the water, where it will be consumed by bacteria or broken down. This process can take weeks. Contrary to chlorine, chloramines do not perish when the water lies still for a few days. As a result chloramines need to be removed from water. Chloramines can be removed by using granular active carbon or acetic acid.

Do chloramines form nitrates?
High amounts of ammonia serve as nutrients for nitrifying bacteria in the water, which can cause nitrate levels in the water to rise. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the stomach. Nitrites can react to N-nitrosamines with proteins in fish. These compounds may be carcinogenic. Young children are more susceptive to nitrites. When children are below 0,5 years old they cannot drink nitrate-rich water, because nitrites cause the oxygen level in the blood to fall (Blue Baby Syndrome). It is advised to feed baby’s with water that has a nitrate content of below 25 μg/L.

Can ammonia cause corrosion?
When chloramines are chemically removed, ammonia may be released. The toxic effect that ammonia has on fish can be prevented by the application of biological filters, natural zeolites and pH-control.
Ammonia causes corrosion of lead and copper. Nowadays most waterworks are made of lead or copper. In Washington DC (US), increased lead concentrations in drinking water caused by chloramine disinfection caused a fuss in 2003. However, drinking water companies do not plan to switch back to using chlorine, because this can no longer comply with the standard for disinfection byproducts, which was lowered to 80 μg/L by the EPA. Chloramines are used because of a lower concentration of disinfection byproducts. To prevent corrosion, orthophosphates are added.

What are the health effects of chloramines?
Water that is disinfected by chloramines does not cause a health threat. It can be used for drinking, bathing and washing and is suitable for several daily domestic purposes.

What are the dangers to kidney dialysis patients, fishes and amphibians?
Drinking Chloramine-containing water or using it for boiling and bathing is safe, because of a neutralization of chloramines in the metabolism. However, people with weakened immune systems, such as young children, elderly people, people with HIV and people that undergo chemo therapy, should also be cautious when it comes to the use of Chloramine disinfected water.
Kidney dialysis patients and people that own fish, reptiles or amphibians should be careful. With kidney dialysis patients the blood comes in contact with water in a semi permeable membrane. This can cause chloramines to directly enter the blood vessels. Chloramines are toxic to the blood.
Fishes can directly take up chloramines in the blood through their gills. Chloramines are toxic to fishes, too. Water that is used in aquaria should be free from chloramines.

What is the legislation for Chloramine disinfection?
EU
The European drinking water guideline does not contain standards for chloramines. When chloramines are used, few disinfection byproducts, such as trihalomethanes, are formed. However, other disinfection byproducts can form. Examples are toxic halonitrils (cyano chloride), halonitromethanes (chloropicrin) and other nitrogen-rich compounds. Some of these compounds can endanger human health. When the European Drinking Water Directive is revised, standards for these compounds will be added.
USA
According to American guidelines by EPA, drinking water that is treated with chloramines can contain a maximum amount of 4 mg/L Cl2. (National Primary Drinking Water Regulations EPA, 2002)

Can chloramines be used for cooling tower water disinfection?
Chloramines are not very suitable for cooling tower water disinfection, because these compounds react very slowly with pathogenic microorganisms.
Chloramine: The Right Choice to Protect Public Health


Advantages


• Chloramines are simple to use, 01/1000, Simple calculation of 1 (one) tab, of 10 (ten) grams / 1000 (one thousand) litres of water.


• Chloramines increase, taste and smell, of water, unlike chlorine which makes the drinking water unpalatable due to its smell and bad taste.


• Chloramines will remain actively within plumbing and dead ends much longer, controls BIO-FILM formation in conduits. This is because it takes long for chloramines to be broken down, HALF LIFE up to 23 DAYS.


• Chloramines produce little or No disinfection by products, (THM) trihalomethanes, (HAA) halo acetic acid and other disinfection by products during chloramines, disinfection.


• Chloramines can be used to improve odour and flavour of the water when chlorine is used as a disinfectant.


• Chloramines disinfection can be improved by raising temperatures.


• Chloramines do not change the pH of water.


• Chloramines can be used as bleach, disinfectants, and oxidisers.


• Chloramines can be removed, even by storage water purifiers, with activated carbon.

Reference to American guidelines by EPA, drinking water, that is treated with chloramines can contain maximum of 4 mg/ L (National Primary Drinking Water regulations EPA, 2002.)

In 2007, the levels of regulated disinfection by-products were the lowest on record by SFPUC.